Sort by: By Year | By Author | By Title

2006

Delaware Girls Initiative (2006). A Blueprint for Systematic Change: Creating a Gender Responsive “Continuum of Services” for girls at-risk or involved in the Juvenile Justice System Wilmington, DE: Delaware Center for Justice Outlines a strategic plan for creating a gender responsive “continuum of services” for girls at-risk or involved in the juvenile justice system in Delaware. Includes a profile of girls in the DE juvenile justice system. HTML      PDF

Patino, V.; Ravoira,L.; and Wolf, A. (2006). A Rallying Cry for Change: Charting a New Direction in the State of Florida’s Response to Girls in the Juvenile Justice System Oakland, CA: National Council on Crime and Delinquency This report describes the risks and needs of girls in the juvenile justice system and identifies the essential set of services and policy initiatives critical to responding to their needs. In addition to the quantitative results, this report personalizes the plight of these girls through their stories and also details the ideas of many staff that work with girls in juvenile justice programs across the state. HTML      PDF

Bureau of Research and Data, FL Department of Juvenile Justice (2006). Juvenile Justice Outcome Evaluation Report 1992-93 Florida: FL. Department of Juvenile Justice The Department of Juvenile Justice's (DJJ) publishes annual Outcome Evaluation Reports. The Outcome Evaluation Report is a comprehensive assessment of the juvenile justice continuum of services in the State of Florida including: Prevention, Intake, Detention, Probation and Residential programming. Recidivism following program services or release is the focus of the OE Report. PDF

Snyder, H. and Sickmund, M. (2006). Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 2006 National Report. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Draws on reliable data and relevant research to provide a comprehensive and insightful view of juvenile crime across the nation and the justice system's response at the beginning of the 21st century. Numerous state maps & tables. 236 pages. HTML      PDF

2005

Haynie, Dana L., Giordano, Peggy C., Manning, Wendy D., Longmore, Monica A. (2005). Adolescent Romantic Relationships and Delinquency Involvement Criminology, 43, (1), 177-210 Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health are well suited for examining the role of romantic partners because they allow for the identification and recreation of friendship networks and connections between romantic partners. Findings reveal that romantic partners' delinquency exerts a unique effect on respondents' delinquency net of friends' delinquency and control variables.

Earls, Felton J., Reiss, Albert J, Jr. (2005). Breaking the Cycle: Predicting and Preventing Crime Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs This research project is a stud of 70 neighborhoods and data from Federal, State, and local governments. It shows that working with at-risk children before they start offending will give them a better opportunity to live a smoother life. Patterns will be identified based on individual behavior, human development, and environmental context.

Sherman, Francine T. (2005). Detention Reform and Girls: Challenges and Solutions Baltimore, MD: The Annie E. Casey Foundation The goal of this report is to offer gender-appropriate detention reform strategies. Some programs are highlighted including female probation units, residential programs for girls who are mothers, services for girls in foster care. It also recommends strategies for advocates to pursue to reduce gender bias. HTML      PDF

Holsinger, Kristi, Holsinger, Alexander M. (2005). Differential Pathways to Violence and Self-Injurious Behavior: African American and White Girls in the Juvenile Justice System Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 42, (2), 211-242 A self-report survey was developed and administered to 163 female institutionalized delinquents in Ohio during the fall of 1998. Questions on their childhood focused on abuse, family history, school, self-esteem, and mental health. The survey also queried the girls on violent behavior, self-injurious behavior, suicide attempts, and overall delinquency. The analyses indicated different reactions to childhood abuse by race. Experiencing abuse was particularly relevant to violence among African-American girls. For White girls, there was a strong link between abuse and indicators of poor mental health (suicide attempts and self-injurious behaviors). Patterns of response to abusive histories should account for these differences. These differential pathways to violence and self-injurious behavior are expected, given the racial differences in socialization and self-esteem. For the African-American girls, drug/alcohol use, family experiences, and antisocial personality scales were significant correlates of total delinquency. For White girls, the attitude, drug-alcohol use, parent, suicide/self-injury, and antisocial personality scales correlated significantly with overall delinquency. HTML

Bloom, B., Owen, B. and Covington, S. (2005). Gender-Responsive Strategies: Research, Practice, and Guiding Principles for Women Offenders Washington, DC: National Institute of Corrections This report summarizes current multidisciplinary knowledge about women in correctional facilities and the ways in which gender affects criminal justice practice and policy. PDF

Connecticut Juvenile Justice Alliance (2005). Girls Services Justice Journal, 2, (2), Bridgeport, CT: Connecticut Juvenile Justice Alliance This edition of Justice Journal highlights some of the major issues facing the juvenile justice system including the development of gender-specific services for girls. HTML      PDF

Snyder, H. (2005). Juvenile Arrests 2003. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Summarizes and analyzes national and state juvenile arrest data presented in the FBI report Crime in the United States 2003. 12 pages. NCJ 209735. HTML      PDF

2004

Acoca, Leslie (2004). Are Those Cookies for Me or My Baby? Understanding Detained and Incarcerated Teen Mothers and Their Children Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 55, (2), 64-80 Overcoming barriers to understand the needs of incarcerated teen mothers and their children include allowing research access, providing programs for mother and children, and improving upon the conditions of confinement. Programs from across the country are cited and described as examples.

Chapple, Constance L., Johnson, Kurt D., Whitbeck, Les B. (2004). Gender and Arrest Among Homeless and Runaway Youth: An Analysis of Background, Family, and Situational Factors Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 2, (2), 129-147 Research that asked are the predictors of arrest among among homeless and runaway youths similar to the predictors of self-reported offending and do these predictors differ by gender? HTML

Sharp, Christy, Simon, Jessica (2004). Girls in the Juvenile Justice System: The Need for More Gender-Responsive Services Washington, D.C.: Child Welfare League of America This report discusses the issues surrounding female offenders in the juvenile justice system and displays common characteristics of female offenders, as well as risk factors linked to girls’ delinquency. HTML

Puzzanchera, C., Stahl, A., Finnegan, T., Tierney, N., Snyder, H. (2004). Juvenile Court Statistics 2000. Pittsburgh, PA: National Center for Juvenile Justice. Profiles more than 1.6 million delinquency cases handled by juvenile courts in 2000 and reviews judicial trends since 1985. 123 pages. HTML      PDF

Finkelhor, David, Ormrod, Richard (2004). Prostitution of Juveniles: Patterns From NIBRS Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention This Bulletin examines the prostitution of juveniles by analyzing incidents of this problem that come to the attention of law enforcement. Drawing on data from the FBI's National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), the authors provide a profile of juvenile prostitution, noting characteristics that distinguish it from its adult counterpart. HTML      PDF

Dixon, Angela, Howie, Pauline, Starling, Jean (2004). Psychopathology in Female Juvenile Offenders The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, (6), 1150-1158 The aim was to document the spectrum of present and lifetime psychological disorders in female juvenile offenders, and to examine the relations between mental health status and socio-demographic, family and trauma variables. One hundrred juvenile offenders were matched with a comparison group of 100 females on age and socioeconomic status (SES). Psychological profiles and truama histories of both groups were assessed . Rates of psychopathology were higher for offenders than non-offenders, with particularly high levels of conduct disorder, substance abuse disorders, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder. In the offenders, 78%met the criteria for three or more diagnoses. The number of psychiatric diagnoses was the most significant factor associated with offender status. There is a high prevalence of psychological disorder in females in juvenile justice custody and this has a very strong association with offender status. Because these co-morbid disorders are treatable, there is a clear opportunity to intervene to decrease psychological distress. HTML      PDF

The National Trauma Child Traumatic Stress Network (2004). Report: Trauma Among Girls in the Juvenile Justice System Juvenile Correctional Mental Health Report, 5, (1) This article, published in the November/December 2004 issue of Juvenile Correctional Mental Health Report, reports on trauma among girls in the juvenile justice system. Sections of the article discuss the following: 1) Prevalence and Descriptive Statistics; 2) Potential Consequences of Trauma; 3) Impact of Juvenile Processing on Traumatized Girls; and 4) Need for Gender-Specific Programming. HTML

2003

Hilton, N. Zoe, Harris, Grant T., Rice, Marnie E. (2003). Adolescents' Perceptions of the Seriousness of Sexual Aggression: Influence of Gender, Traditional Attitudes, and Self-Reported Experience Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 15, (3), 201-214 In this study, 16-year-old students (n=212) of both sexes rated the seriousness of 9 aurally presented scenarios that portrayed either sexual or nonsexual physical aggression. Four acts of aggression were depicted in each scenario to provide a realistic enactment of events. Consistent with study hypotheses, girls' ratings of seriousness were higher than boys' ratings for both sexual and physical (nonsexual) aggression. Sexual aggression was rated as more serious by participants than physical aggression, but this was due entirely to girls' ratings. Male-to-female aggression was rated as most serious by all participants. Sexual aggression that involved the use of physical force was rated as significantly more serious than verbal pressure alone when the perpetrator was male. Participants who reported being perpetrators of the kind of aggression portrayed in a scenario rated the aggression as being less serious overall than participants who did not report such aggressive behavior. Traditional sex-role attitudes correlated with lower rated seriousness of the portrayed aggressive behavior, but not with reported perpetration or victimization by participants. The role of attitudes as a direct cause of interpersonal aggression is discussed, as well as implications for intervention. HTML

Acoca, Leslie (2003). Developing a Health Screening for Girls in the Juvenile Justice System The Link: Connecting Juvenile Justice and Child Welfare, 2, (3), 4-5, 10, Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America This article discusses the development of health screening for girls in the juvenile justice system. Some issues that the article addresses are that poor and minority girls in the juvenile justice system are at a high and the level of sexually transmitted diseases and mental health disorders among girls has significantly increased as well. PDF

Alderden, Megan Buurma, Perez, Adriana (2003). Female Delinquents Committed to the Illinois Department of Corrections: A Profile Chicago, IL: Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority Without the state level data on the number of females arrested or the state level data on specific characteristics of female delinquents in Illinois, it is difficult to determine the need of these delinquents. This report provides information regarding the particular needs of female delinquents so that the Illinois Department of Corrections can provide them with proper care. HTML

Bloom, Barbara, Owen, Barbara, Rosenbaum, Jill, Dechenes, Elizabeth Piper (2003). Focusing on Girls and Young Women: A Gendered Perspective on Female Delinquency Women and Criminal Justice, 14, 117-136 Focus groups with girls involved in the juvenile justice system were conducted in ten California counties. This article provides a detailed picture of their perspective on family problems, abuse and substance abuse issues, gang involvement, school problems, and sexual behavior. HTML

Miller, Jody, White, Norman A. (2003). Gender and Adolescent Relationship Violence: A Contextual Examination Criminology, 41, (4), 1207-1248 In these studies, fairly high rates of female-to-male violence have been documented, leading to considerable debate about the role of gender in dating and other partner violence. Drawing from a broader qualitative study of violence in the lives of African-American youths from a distressed urban community, we weigh in on this debate by providing a contextual examination of the nature, circumstances, and meanings of adolescent dating violence. [article abstract].

McGuire, M. Dyan, Kuhn, Kathryn E. (2003). Gender and the Likelihood of Being Securely Detained for Contempt Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 54, (1), 17-32 This study uses descriptive and multivariate techniques to examine the demographic, legal, and jurisdictional variables associated with receiving secure detention for violating a valid court order and to evaluate the degree to which the spirit, if not the letter, of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act's core requirement of deinstitutionalizing status offenders is being violated because of the exemption permitting juvenile court judges to securely detain children found in contempt. HTML

Dolan, Lisa, Kolthoff, Ken, Schreck, Mike, Smilanich, Patti, Todd, Ross (2003). Gender-Specific Treatment for Clients with Co-Occurring Disorders Corrections Today, 65, (6), 100-107 Females at the First Judicial Department of Correctional Services in Waterloo, IA were suffering from co-occurring disorders and required gender-specific programs to address their needs. Co-occurring disorders come hand-in-hand with victimization and homelessness and therefore, need to have effective treatments. This article summarizes proper measures to take for these females and how Iowa’s Dual Diagnosis Program is becoming more successful in helping treat co-occurring disorders.

Le, Thao, Arifuku, Isami, Nunez, Michell (2003). Girls and Culture in Delinquency Intervention: A Case Study of Ryse Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 54, (3), 25-34 Given the growing trend of girls in the juvenile justice system, there has been increasing attention toward providing gender-specific programming. The Reaffirming Young Sisters' Excellence (RYSE) program was one of Alameda County, Calif., Probation Department's intervention programs designed to address both gender and cultural factors in girls programming. ANCOVA analyses of 350 randomized girls did not provide support for the gender-specific hypothesis that girls who received RYSE intervention will have a lower recidivism score than girls who received traditional probation services. However, the cultural hypothesis was partially supported with African American girls who participated in the RYSE intervention faring better than Hispanic, White, and Asisan RYSE girls, and their African American control counterparts.

National Juvenile Detention Association (2003). Girls Programming Lexington, KY: National Juvenile Detention Association This report includes information on girls programming such as building relationships with girls, working with sexually abused girls, and resources for girls and service providers regarding juvenile female offenders.

Sprott, Jane B., Doob, Anthony N. (2003). It's All in the Denominator: Trends in the Processing of Girls in Canada's Youth Courts Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 45, (1), 73-98, Myrtle Beach, SC This paper uses nine years of youth court data to understand two different trends: increases in the proportion of youth court cases involving girls and few changes in the rate of finding girls guilty in youth court. It appears that the increased proportion of girls is due more to a decrease in the rate of finding boys guilty as opposed to an increase in finding girls guilty. Thus, in understanding trends in the use of youth court, explanations should explore why it is that the rates for girls are relatively stable whereas the rates for boys, for property offences in particular, are decreasing. An explanation that assumed that rates of offending (or apprehension, or imposition of guilty findings) were increasing for girls would not, we suggest, fit the existing data HTML

Mahan, Sue, (2003). Pregnant Girls and Moms in Detention Justice Policy Journal, 1, (2), 22 total The social psychological analysis of teenage mothers were examined by looking at self-image, self-control, self-esteem, gender roles, and how they relate to socialization. This study is necessary in order to understand how teenagers view being parents. HTML

Bloom, Barbara, Owen, Barbara, Covington, Stephanie (2003). Research, Practice, and Guiding Principles for Women Offender: Gender-Responsive Strategies Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Corrections This report contains information on women in correctional facilities and how gender affects criminal justice policy. It summarizes literature involving women offenders and then recommends strategies for improving their situation under criminal justice supervision. HTML

Eells, Stephanie (2003). The Girls' Assets Program: Providing Therapeutic Mentoring Corrections Today, 65, (6), 20, 22 The Girls’ Assets Program provides residential and community-based treatments to adolescents and their families. The main focus of the program is to develop relationships between the youths and their mentors. The article describes internal and external components that the youth need in order to fully develop. Success stories are share as proof that the program works.

Leiber, Michael J., Mack, Kristin Y. (2003). The Individual and Joint Effects of Race, Gender, and Family Status on Juvenile Justice Decision-Making Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 40, (1), 34-70 Relying on interpretations of the symbolic threat thesis as a theoretical framework, in particular the emphasis on the perceptions of decision-makers and stereotyping, the authors examine the extent to which the effects of race on youth justice outcomes are influenced by gender and family status.

Siegel, Jane A., Williams, Linda M. (2003). The Relationship between Child Sexual Abuse and Female Delinquency and Crime: A Prospective Study Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 40, (1), 71-94 This article reports on a prospective study of 206 women who, in the period from 1973 to 1975, were treated in a hospital emergency room in a major city following a report of sexual abuse. Their subsequent juvenile and adult criminal records were compare

Cary, Lisa J. (2003). Unhomely spaces and deviant subjectivity: the sociohistorical homelessness of female juvenile offenders Qualitative Studies in Education, 16, (4), 587-602 By analyzing the intersections of historical discourses constructing the female juvenile offender as deviant, this paper highlights the im/possibility of "home", that is the "unhomely spaces" of the social institutions catering to these girls and the homelessness of the deviant girl within and against the hegemonic discourses - thus troubling what it means to research the "homeless".' [online article abstract] HTML      PDF

Biden, Joseph R., Jr. (2003). What About the Girls? The Role of the Federal Government in Addressing the Rise in Female Juvenile Offenders Stanford Law and Policy Review, 14, (1) Our strategy to decrease the number of girls in the juvenile justice system must include continued funding dedicated to reducing the number of runaway youth. Longitudinal studies would help us determine the efficacy of female juvenile offender diversion, intervention, and treatment programs' [article summary].

M. Diane Clark ; Hanno Petras ; Sheppard G. Kellam ; Nicholas Ialongo ; Jeanne M. Poduska (2003). Who's Most at Risk for School Removal and Later Juvenile Delinquency? Effects of Early Risk Factors, Gender, School/Community Poverty, and Their Impact on More Distal Outcomes Women and Criminal Justice, 14, 89-116 This study attempted to better understand how girls are impacted by school removal and evaluate whether or not school removal mediates distal outcomes of known mal-adaptation such as juvenile delinquency, pregnancy, and early parenting. This study presented a comparison of girls to boys, from several schools in eastern Baltimore, Maryland, on proximal and distal characteristics and outcomes related to school removal, either through suspension or expulsion. HTML

2002

Trupin, Eric W., Stewart, David G., Beach, Brad, Boesky, Lisa (2002). Effectiveness of a Dialectical Behaviour Therapy Program for Incarcerated Female Juvenile Offenders Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 7, (3), 121-127 Background: Female offenders incarcerated in Washington State have demonstrated higher rates of mental health needs than boys. The State of Washington Governor's Juvenile Justice Advisory Committee sponsored a collaborative project conducted by a research team from the University of Washington and the staff at the Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration's Echo Glen Childrens' Center to evaluate the effectiveness of a DBT intervention. HTML      PDF

Beadle, Andrew D. (2002). Empowerment Programs Teach Girls to Speak, Even Fight, for Themselves Youth Today, April 2002, 12, 14-16 This article, published in the April 2002 issue of Youth Today: The Newspaper on Youth Work, describes programs that work to empower girls and teach them that they are people of strength and talent. HTML

Lanctot, Nadine, Le Blanc, Marc (2002). Explaining Deviance by Adolescent Females Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press This chapter describes three theoretical perspectives that help explain why the gender gap in deviance is so apparent. The first theory compares the male offender theory to women. The second theory focuses on gender differences to explain differences in deviant behavior. The third theory focuses on male-dominated theory construction.

Morgan, Marcia, Patton, Pam (2002). Gender-Responsive Programming in the Justice System: Oregon's Guidelines for Effective Programming for Girls Federal Probation, September 2002, 57-65 This article discusses gender-responsive programming in the justice system and specifically talks about Oregon's guidelines for effective programming for girls. This article reviews issues facing girls today and examine how Oregon's gender-responsive guidelines address these issues.

Kakar, Suman, Friedemann, Marie-Luise, Peck, Linda (2002). Girls in Detention: The Results of Focus Group Discussion Interviews and Official Records Review Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 18, (1), 57-73 This study examined the risk factors related to delinquency in an effort to describe the problem of rising female juvenile delinquency. It also examined the context of family environments in which female juvenile delinquents live. Using a triangulated methods approach, the data collected via focus group discussions with 30 female residents in a Regional Detention Center and 100 official intake records revealed that childhood maltreatment, parental incarceration, and school discipline problems were significant risk factors associated with delinquency.

Bloom, Barbara, Owen, Barbara, Piper Deschenes, Elizabeth, Rosenbaum, Jill (2002). Improving Juvenile Justice for Females: A Statewide Assessment in California Crime and Delinquency, 48, (4), 526-552 This article reports findings from a survey of officials from various California state agencies and a series of interviews and focus groups with female youth and professionals serving this population. The study examined types of services provided, program barriers, and facilitation of change. Effective programming for girls and women should be shaped by and tailored to their real-world situations and problems.

Bloom, Barbara, Owen, Barbara, Deschenes, Elizabeth Piper, Rosenbaum, Jill (2002). Moving Toward Justice for Female Juvenile Offenders in the New Millennium: Modeling Gender-Specific Policies and Programs Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 18, (1), 37-56 This article presents an overview of national efforts to address gender-specific programming and summarizes findings from a statewide assessment in California in 1997 and 1998. The results indicate the the family is the most important risk and protective factor for young women.

Hammer, H., Finkelhor, D., Sedlak, A.J., Schultz, D.J. (2002). National Estimates of Missing Children: An Overview Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Presents an overview of the second National Incidence Studies of Missing, Abducted, Runaway, and Thrownaway Children (NISMART-2). First in a series summarizing NISMART-2 findings, this Bulletin describes NISMART component surveys and estimating methodology and defines the types of missing child episodes studied HTML      PDF

Ragaglia, Kristine D., Gerber, Stacey H. (2002). Programming and Services for Females in the DCF Juvenile Justice System Hartford, CT: Connecticut DCF This document discusses programming and programs and services for females in Connecticut’s DCF Juvenile Justice System. Girls have special needs such as sexual abuse, pregnancy and mental health and the authors suggest moving toward a community-base service system.

Gaarder, Emily, Belknap, Joanne (2002). Tenuous Borders: Girls Transferred to Adult Court Criminology, 40, (3), 481-518 This study is guided by a feminist approach to 'give voice' to 22 girls incarcerated in a women's prison in the Midwest. Through in-depth interviews, the girls describe their lives before prison and their perceptions of being tried and convicted as adults.

2001

Moffitt, T.E. and Caspi, A. (2001). Childhood predictors differentiate life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways among males and females. Development and Psychopathology. 13(2): 355-375. Risk and protective factors can explain developmental pathways to delinquency. The author uses such factors to distinguish two developmental pathways to delinquency: one pathway to long-term delinquency and criminal behavior and another confined to adolescence. Sexual abuse, mental health characteristics, delinquent peers, substance abuse, and criminal justice processing are but a few factors that distinguish long-term from short-term careers of female offenders.

Tiet, Quyen Q., Wasserman, Gail A., Loeber, Rolf, McReynolds, Larkin S., Miller, Laurie S. (2001). Developmental and Sex Differences in Types of Conduct Problems Journal of Child and Family Studies, 10, (2), 181-197 Maternal report of types of conduct problems in a high-risk sample of 228 boys and 80 girls (ages 4-18) were examined, using a version of the Child Behavior Checklist, expanded to include a range of covert and overt antisocial items (stealing, lying, physical aggression, relational aggression, substance use, and impulsivity). Age and sex effects were investigated. Boys were significantly more physically aggressive than girls. There were no sex differences for stealing, lying, relational aggression, and substance use. A small group of girls had pervasive conduct problems across multiple domains. For some domains such as stealing, lying, and relational aggression, girls showed at least as many problems as boys. Girls, in general, tended to have fewer conduct problems. On the other hand, when assessed across multiple domains, conduct problems in high-risk girls were possibly more pervasive than in high-risk boys, suggesting the possibility of a gender paradox.

Moore, Joan, Hagedorn, John (2001). Female Gangs: A Focus on Research Washington, D.C.: Office of Justice Programs; U.S. Department of Justice This document presents information on female gangs. It discusses the long-term consequences of gang membership, how ethnicity and gender norms affect female gang behavior, and the high rates of drug arrests for female gang members. It also considers the motivating factors that may result in females joining gangs.

MacDonald, John M., Chesney-Lind, Meda (2001). Gender Bias and Juvenile Justice Revisited: A Multiyear Analysis Journal of Crime and Delinquency, 47, (2), 173-195 This study presents a multiyear empirical examination of gender bias in the handling of juvenile court cases in Hawaii. Based on prior qualitative and quantitative data, it is hypothesized that once female juvenile offenders are found delinquent, they will be sanctioned more severely than male offenders by the juvenile court, holding other factors constant.

Collins, Christopher (2001). Girls and Violence New York, NY: Girls, Inc. This is a fact sheet on girls and violence. It outlines evidence such as young women experience violence in different ways, remain silent about dating violence, and other facts. HTML

American Bar Association and National Bar Association (2001). Justice by gender: The lack of appropriate prevention, diversion, and treatment alternatives for girls in the justice system. Washington, DC: American Bar Association. This report discusses the lack of appropriate prevention, diversion, and treatment options for girls in the juvenile justice system. Further efforts must be made to continue to understand the needs of girls and to develop strategies to reduce recidivism. HTML      PDF

Miller, Jody (2001). One of the Guys: Girls, Gangs, and Gender New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc This book compares female gang involvement in St. Louis, Missouri and Columbus, Ohio. The socioeconomic conditions of the two cities are particularly different allowing for an overall understanding of the nature of female gang involvement. Includes interviews and excerpts of dialogues.

Schaible, Natalie M. (2001). PACE Center for Girls: Gender-Specific Prevention The Link: Connecting Juvenile Justice and Child Welfare, 1, (3), 1, 5 This article, published in the Summer 2001 issue of the Child Welfare League of America's The Link, describes the PACE Center for Girls, a statewide Florida prevention program that is making a significant impact on the escalating numbers of delinquency rates among young women in this state. The PACE program is one that helps girls and young women build self-esteem in an environment 'that celebrates the female perspective. PDF

Cote, Sylvana, Zoccolillo, Mark, Tremblay, Richard E., Nagin, Daniel, Vitaro, Frank (2001). Predicting Girls' Conduct Disorder in Adolescence From Childhood Trajectories of Disruptive Behaviors Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 40, (6), 678-684 The objective of this study was to test whether girls with distinct trajectories of disruptive behaviors in childhood could be identified and whether higher-level trajectories were related to conduct disorder symptoms and diagnosis in adolescence. The study sample consisted of 820 girls from the province of Quebec followed over 10-years (1986-1996). The findings supported the idea that there was an early onset pathway for conduct disorder, at least for some girls.

Lauritsen, Janet L., White, Norman A. (2001). Putting Violence in its Place: The Influence of Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Place on the Risk for Violence Criminology and Public Policy, 1, (1), 37-60 This research shows that non-Latino black, non-Latino white, and Latino males and females in the U.S. experience significantly different levels of stranger and non-stranger violence, and that these forms of non-lethal violence are especially pronounced in areas with high levels of socioeconomic disadvantage.

Peters, Sheila R. (2001). Relationships' Role in Female Juvenile Delinquency Corrections Today, 63, (7), 76-79 This article, published in the December 2001 issue of Corrections Today, delineates the importance of relationships in developing healthy and unhealthy outcomes for adolescent females, particularly the role of relationships in the development of female juvenile delinquency.

Bottcher, Jean (2001). Social Practices of Gender: How Gender Relates to Delinquency in the Everyday Lives of High-Risk Youths Criminology, 39, (4), 893-932 40 brothers and sisters of 29 teenagers incarcerated by California Youth Authority participated in this study. Results revealed six social practices that constrained female juvenile delinquency and rewarded male juvenile delinquency. Finding suggested gender as a correlate of delinquency and helps explain some earlier findings.

Peterson, Dana, Miller, Jody, Esbensen, Finn-Aage (2001). The Impact of Sex Composition on Gangs and Gang Member Delinquency Criminology, 39, (2), 411-440 Sociology of organizations scholars have long recognized sex and gender as key features shaping interactional dynamics within groups, and several recent qualitative studies suggest that sex composition of gangs helps shape the gang experience for both boys and girls…Our findings suggest that sex composition, independent of sex itself, is important in shaping the norms and activities of gangs and their members.

Palomino, Al (2001). The Ventura Youth Correctional Facility Provides Needed Treatment Programs to Youthful Female Offenders Corrections Today, 63, (1), 82-84 The article focuses on specialized programs within the Ventura Youth Correctional Facility (VYCF) consisting of six female living units with female offenders ranging from age 13 to 25.

Chesney-Lind, Meda (2001). What about the girls? Delinquency programming as if gender mattered. Corrections Today, 63, (1), 38-45 A discussion of delinquency programming as it relates to gender. The article concludes that delinquency programming for girls should: 1) Address the following concerns: physical and sexual violence (from parents, boyfriends, pimps and others), risk of HIV/AIDS, pregnancy and motherhood, drug and alcohol dependency, family problems, unemployment and employment training, finding safe housing, managing stress, and developing a sense of efficacy and empowerment; 2) Be scrutinized to assure that they are culturally specific as well as gender-specific; 3) Provide transition and aftercare services that support young women in maintaining the progress they have made; 4) Begin at earlier ages; and 5) Work to empower girls and advocate for change that will benefit them.

2000

Ilacqua, Giorgio (2000). Bonny & Clyde: Replication of the Predictive Validity of the Young Offenders Level of Services Inventory for Male and Female Young Offender (LSI-YO) Criminal Justice Research Reports, 2, (2), 28 Researchers wanted to validate the Young Offenders Level of Services Inventory and see whether sex influenced the recidivism rate during a 12-month follow-up period. Results revealed no difference in recidivism outcomes between the sexes. The instrument reliably predicted the risk of recidivism for both sexes.'

Widom, Cathy Spatz (2000). Childhood Victimization and the Derailment of Girls and Women to the Criminal Justice System National Institute of Justice, Washington, D.C. This paper was published by the National Institute of Justice as part of the 1999 Conference on Criminal Justice Research and Evaluation - 'Enhancing Policy and Practice Through Research.' Cathy Spatz Widom, psychologist and professor at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, examines the intersection - or cycle - of victimization and criminality, examining whether abuse and neglect in childhood promote criminality later in life by derailing young girls' normal development. HTML

Richie, Beth E. (2000). Exploring the Link Between Violence Against Women and Women's Involvement in Illegal Activity Washington, DC: NIJ This paper was published by the National Institute of Justice as part of the 1999 Conference on Criminal Justice Research and Evaluation - 'Enhancing Policy and Practice Through Research.' Sociologist and professor Beth Richie argues in this paper that a key to understanding and responding to women as offenders is understanding their status as crime victims. HTML

Ohio Office of Criminal Justice Services (2000). Finding A Place in the System: Ohio's Delinquent Girls Columbus, OH: Ohio Office of Criminal Justice Services This presentation, while addressing issues surrounding female youth delinquency in Ohio, highlights national statistics and programs working to empower delinquent and at-risk girls. It contains perspectives and stories from academics, government officials, professionals in the field, representatives of the Ohio judiciary, and from girls who have been incarcerated in detention and correctional facilities.

Alarid, Leanne Fiftal, Burton, Jr., Velmer S., Cullen, Francis T. (2000). Gender and Crime among Felony Offenders: Assessing the Generality of Social Control and Differential Association Theories Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 37, (2), 171-199 Based on a sample of 1,153 newly incarcerated felons, the authors examine the ability of differential association and social control theories to explain self-reported offending across types of crime and gender groups. Overall, the analyses lend support to both perspectives and suggest that they are 'general' theories of crime. [article abstract].

Crime and Justice Research Institute (2000). PrOMIS Update: What About Gender and Delinquency Prevention? Philadelphia, PA: Crime and Justice Research Institute This report, published in October 2000 as part of the Crime and Justice Research Institute's PrOMIS Update series, documents information on the subject of gender and delinquency prevention. Published on a quarterly basis, this newsletter devoted to discussion of issues related to the Philadelphia delinquency prevention population. This issue focuses on gender differences in the prevention population.

Rubin, H. Ted (2000). Teen Quest: Female-Specific Program Services for Colorado's Delinquent Girls Juvenile Justice Update, 6, (3), 1-2, 14-16 Teen Quest residents have a multitude of treatment needs, including post-traumatic stress disorder, substance abuse, psychiatric disorders, sexual abuse, eating disorders, self-harm and self-mutilation, and motherhood. The Teen Quest approach to treatment helps residents acquire insights into their pasts while they develop skills to function independently in society. It emphasizes strengths and strength-building. The treatment approach applies a triad of theoretical bases.

1999

Obeidallah, Dawn A., Earls, Felton J. (1999). Adolescent Girls: The Role of Depression in the Development of Delinquency Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice This study, part of the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods, suggest that depressed girls on most at risk of developing antisocial behaviors. Future follow-up research is described. HTML

Maryland's Juvenile Justice Coalition (1999). After School Programs Reduce Juvenile Crime Baltimore, MD: Maryland's Juvenile Justice Coalition This short document offers a look at some of Maryland's after school programs that work to reduce juvenile crime. Since over half of juvenile arrests have been found to occur after school (between the hours of 2 and 8 p.m.), Maryland's Juvenile Justice Coalition has decided that the after school hours should be a time of development, not delinquency. Much evidence exists that points to the fact that the after school hours need to be a period of delinquency prevention. Some programs already in gear during the afters chool hours include The Quantum Opportunities Program, The Boys and Girls Club of America, Success Through Academics and Recreational Support and The Lansdowne PAL Center. The report concludes by saying, 'Maryland's Juvenile Justice Coalition finds the evidence compelling that expanding after-school programs, in conjunction with other prevention and treatment strategies, will reduce delinquent behavior. The Coalition strongly supports efforts to provide after school opportunities to all children in the State.

Boyle, Patrick (1999). Are Girls Getting Worse, or Are Adults Getting Scared? Youth Today, 8, (2), 1, 16-18 This article, published in the February 1999 issue of Youth Today, offers statistics from the FBI and a new study by Drug Strategies that say that youthful females are committing more crimes and using more drugs. The article also points out that the studies could be a bit inaccurate in that it may just seem as though girls are more delinquent simply because adults are noticing it more nowadays than they have in the past. HTML

Chesney-Lind, Meda (1999). Challenging Girls' Invisibility in Juvenile Court The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, (564), 185-202 A review of the nature of female delinquency as well as the juvenile justice system as a whole. Specifically, the unique problems of girls, like sexual abuse, were long ignored by a system that purported to seek 'the best interests of the child.' Instead, girls' survival strategies, like running away from home, were criminalized. [article abstract].

Keenan, Kate, Loeber, Rolf, Green, Stephanie (1999). Conduct Disorder in Girls: A Review of the Literature Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 2, (1), 3-19 Gender differences may affect Conduct Disorder severity. Primarily, boys with CD are studied. If a girl has CD, she is likely to suffer from other associated outcomes such as Antisocial Personality Disorder and early pregnancy.

Winokur, Kristin Parsons (1999). Facing the Challenge: A Profile of Florida's Female Juvenile Commitment Programs Tallahassee, Florida: Florida Department of Juvenile Justice This document, published in December 1999 by the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice, offers a profile of Florida's female juvenile commitment programs. According to the foreword, this document 'represents an initial step in examining juvenile correctional programming for female offenders.

Girls Equitable Treatment Coalition, Division of Criminal Justice, State of Colorado (1999). Guidelines for Female-Specific Programs Denver, CO: Girls Equitable Treatment Coalition, Division of Criminal Justice, State of Colorado The Girls Equitable Treatment Coalition in Colorado published this document to provide specific guidelines for dealing with treatment programs for female delinquents. These guidelines are given to service providers to use and revise to their needs.

Acoca, L. (1999). Investing in girls: A 21st century strategy. Juvenile Justice, Vol 6 (1). Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. This article describes the characteristics of girls at risk of entering the juvenile justice system, health and mental health issues, family-based programs tailored to girls’ needs, Federal and State partnerships, and early intervention. HTML      PDF

Snyder, H. and Sickmund, M. (1999). Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 National Report. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Draws on reliable data and relevant research to provide a comprehensive and insightful view of juvenile crime across the nation and the justice system's response at the beginning of the 21st century. Numerous state maps & tables. 236 pages. HTML      PDF

Peterson, Elicka S. L. (1999). Murder as Self-Help: Women and Intimate Partner Homicide Homicide Studies, 3, (1), 30-46 The article incorporates race, gender and social class as predictors of low social status. The article limits the scope to female homicide because of the need for such an explanation and because it is particularly well suited for the task, given the depressing effect of gender on social status.

Ravoira, LaWanda (1999). National Girls' Caucus Juvenile Justice, 6, (1), 21-28 The National Girls' Caucus was formed to ensure equitable treatment. It includes roundtables, workshops and retreats on subjects such as banking and finance, HIV/AIDS, health, nutrition, conflict resolution, and behavior modification. HTML      PDF

Iowa Commission on the Status of Women (1999). Providing Gender-Specific Services for Adolescent Female Offenders: Guidelines and Resources Des Moines, IA: Iowa Commission on the Status of Women This is the result of the Iowa Commission of the Status of Women’s attempt to support the needs of girls in the juvenile justice system. It provides a description of gender-specific program frameworks for high-risk girls. It also includes a list of organizations that focus on girls. HTML      PDF

Fleming, Gary, Winkler, Gerald (1999). Sending Them to Prison: Washington State Learns to Accommodate Female Youthful Offenders in Prison Corrections Today, 61, (2), 132-135 This article, published in the April 1999 issue of Corrections Today, discusses female youthful offenders in Washington State and the new legislation that requires youthful offenders to receive adult sentencing and reside in adult prisons for serious offenses such as aggravated murder. This article describes the background and history of trying and convicting young people as adults in this state, as well as talks about the objectives of the Youthful Offender Program at the Washington Corrections Center for Women.

Green, Stephanie M., Russo, Mary F., Navratil, Judith L., Loeber, Rolf (1999). Sexual and Physical Abuse Among Adolescent Girls with Disruptive Behavior Problems Journal of Child and Family Studies, 8, (2), 151-168 A total of 49 girls (aged 13-17 years) with disruptive behavior were interviewed, along with their primary caretakers. Data were obtained through both a structured interview with the girl and her parent, as well as self-report and parent-report questionnaires. Findings show that the prevalence of conduct disorder (CD) and major depression were higher for abused girls.

Daniel, Marian D. (1999). The Female Intervention Team Juvenile Justice, 4, (1), 14-20 In 1992, the Department of Juvenile Justice in Maryland developed a task force to assess the needs of female offenders in the juvenile justice system. The task force recommended creation of a gender-specific program for girls in Baltimore City. Thus, the Female Intervention Team (FIT) was born. Two years after FIT began, 50 percent fewer females were committed to Maryland's secure commitment facility. HTML      PDF

Heimer, Karen, De Coster, Stacy (1999). The Gendering of Violent Delinquency Criminology, 37, (2), 277-318 The article synthesizes arguments from differential association theory, feminist theory, and gender studies. The outcome is a theoretical model of gender and violent delinquency that focuses on the interplay between structural positions and cultural processes. The theoretical model includes a core construct of differential association theory -- the learning of definitions favorable to violence -- as well as arguments about cultural definitions or meanings of gender and gender differences in the role of familial controls and peer influence, which are derived from feminist theory and gender studies.

Ellis, Rodney A., O'Hara, Maggi, Sowers, Karen (1999). Treatment Profiles of Troubled Female Adolescents: Implications for Judicial Disposition Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 50, (3), 25-40 The 65 female and 72 male participants were ages 13-17 years and were selected from a residential treatment program. The analysis revealed distinct treatment profiles, each differing in composition by gender. The overall findings suggested that that important differences exist between the genders in effective treatment of problem behavior. HTML

Dowden, C. and Andrews, D. (1999). What works for Female Offenders: A Meta-Analytic Review Crime and Delinquency, 45, 4, 438-452 Although the question of what works for general offender populations has received considerable attention within the rehabilitation literature, very little research has examined female offenders. The results indicate that the clinically relevant and psychologically informed principles of risk, need, and responsivity identified in past meta-analyses were associated with enhanced reductions in reoffending. Contrary to conventional wisdom, substance abuse and basic education skills were not found to be important targets for intervention. The strongest predictors of treatment success involved criminogenic needs, notably, family family process variables. Personal and interpersonal noncriminogenic needs were not related to treatment outcome.

United States General Accounting Office (1999). Women in Prison: Issues and Challenges Confronting U.S. Correctional Systems Washington, D.C.: United States General Accounting Office The study considers the extent to which correctional policies, classification systems, and education/job-training programs take into account the special needs of female inmates, along with the types of parenting programs provided to female inmates (i.e., visitation, mother-infant/child residential programs, and parent education programs). Information is provided on the types of reviews performed to assess female-specific health care, particularly regarding access to care and quality of care.

1998

Esbensen, Finn-Aage, Deschenes, Elizabeth Piper (1998). A Multisite Examination of Youth Gang Membership: Does Gender Matter? Criminology, 36, (4), 799-828 'The nature and extent of female involvement in gangs has been a relatively neglected area of criminological inquiry. Even more rare have been investigations of explanations of female gang participation. This neglect can be attributed, in large part, to a perception that the phenomenon is statistically rare and the behavior substantively unimportant. Our objectives in this research are twofold: to describe gang membership in a general survey of eighth-grade students in a cross section of the United States and to examine differences between boys' and girls' attitudes associated with gang membership.'

Shelden, Randall G. (1998). Confronting the Ghost of Mary Ann Crouse: Gender Bias in the Juvenile Justice System Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 49, (1) This report discusses the gender bias and notes the lack of programs that target young delinquent girls. Female delinquents are the fastest growing segment in the juvenile justice system and an attempt needs to be made to meet the needs of these girls.

Mears, Daniel P., Ploeger, Matthew, Warr, Mark (1998). Explaining the Gender Gap in Delinquency: Peer Influence and Moral Evaluations of Behavior Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 35, (3), 251-266 Data were obtained from the National Youth Survey, a continuing longitudinal study of a wide range of self-reported delinquent behaviors in a national probability sample of 1,725 persons between 11 and 17 years of age. Data analysis showed males and females differed in exposure to delinquent peers, with males substantially more likely than females to have delinquent friends.

Miller, Jody (1998). Gender and Victimization Risk Among Young Women in Gangs Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 35, 4, 429-453 Research has documented the enhancement effects of gang involvement for criminal offending, but little attention has been given to victimization. This article examines how gang involvement shapes young women's risks of victimization.

Bureau of Data and Research (1998). Gender Differences in Empathy for Delinquent and Non-Delinquent Youths Florida: Bureau of Data and Research, Florida Department of Juvenile Justice A study that was conducted to study gender differences of youths in the juvenile justice system compared to youths not in the system. The results of the study will hopefully help better programs for girls.

Johnson, Sylvia J. (1998). Girls Are in Trouble. Do We Care? The Number of Delinquent Girls Is on the Rise; Only a Coordinated, Multiagency Approach Can Turn the Tide Corrections Today, 60, (7), 136-141 This article tells us that the number of delinquent girls is on the rise and offers an approach that can help to change these statistics for the better. Specific sections of the article include: youth delinquency is down, overall; cataloguing girls' delinquency; girl-specific data; focus group findings; and recommendations.

Greene, Peters and Associates (1998). Guiding Principles for Promising Female Programming: An Inventory of Best Practices Nashville, Tennessee: Greene, Peters and Associates The purpose of this publication is to provide a review of studies focusing on gender-specific needs of young at-risk girls, describe the factors that may cause girls to become delinquent, and present strategies for girls in the system and in the community. HTML

Prescott, Laura (1998). Improving Policy and Practice for Adolescent Girls with Co-Occurring Disorders in the Juvenile Justice System Delmar, NY: The National GAINS Center for People with Co-Occurring Disorders in the Justice System This report recommends and describes gender-specific programs and crisis intervention protocols and procedures. HTML

Community Research Associates (1998). Juvenile Female Offenders: A Status of the States Report Washington, D.C.: Community Research Associates This report includes strategies that focus on gender specific programs for female juvenile delinquents, training for personnel working with young females, and preventing delinquent behavior through community-based services. HTML

Acoca, L. and Dedel, K. (1998). No place to hide: Understanding and meeting the needs of girls in the California juvenile justice system. San Francisco, CA: National Council on Crime and Delinquency. A study conducted between April 1997 and May 1998 sought to develop a profile of females in the California juvenile justice system; develop a basic blueprint for a comprehensive continuum of prevention, intervention, and graduated sanction services for females; and provide specific information on how to establish effective local services for females.

Acoca, Leslie (1998). Outside/Inside: The Violation of American Girls at Home, on the Streets, and in the Juvenile Justice System Crime and Delinquency, 44, (4), 561-589 A study conducted by the National Council on Crime and Delinquency involving girl offenders in four California counties created a profile of girl offenders that included service and program needs. This report discusses the results of the study.

Esbensen, Finn-Anage, Winfree, L. Thomas (1998). Race and Gender Differences Between Gang and Non-Gang Youths: Results from a Multisite Survey Justice Quarterly, 15, (3), 505-526 'Most examinations of youth gangs have been limited to a single city or a single state. In this article we examine gang affiliation in a multisite survey of 5,935 eighth grade students in 42 schools located in 11 cities across the United States. We use this diverse sample to examine two related issues: the demographic composition of gangs and the level of delinquent activity of gang members compared with nongang members. Our findings call into question the validity of prevailing notions about the number of girls in gangs and their level of delinquency involvement, and the number of white youths active in gangs and the extent of their illegal activities' [from page 505].

Mason, Gail, Wilson, Paul (1998). Sport, Recreation and Juvenile Crime: An Assessment of the Impact of Sport and Recreation Upon Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal Youth Offenders Canberra, Australia: Australian Institute of Criminology This research examined the ability of recreation and sports activities to lessen the offending behavior among young people, with a focus on whether sport and recreation can impact Aboriginal delinquent youth. In Australia, males commit the bulk of juvenile crimes and Aboriginal juveniles are greatly overrepresented within the juvenile justice system. The main goal of the research was to examine relevant research literature, both overseas and in the United States, that has probed the possible effects of sports and recreation on delinquency. The problem with most empirical research on this topic is the problem of establishing causality; it is unclear whether participation in sport activities directly causes the decline in delinquency. Moreover, research on the criminality of girls and women is too scarce to draw any conclusions regarding the impact of girl’s participation in sporting activities. The United States has over 100 juvenile offender programs involving wilderness and survival camps due to the assumption that such activity will lead to long-term changes in adolescent delinquent behavior. However, standards of evaluation in this field have been poor leading to a lack of conclusive evidence of their actual impact, although short-term success has been noted. HTML

Conly, Catherine (1998). The Women's Prison Association: Supporting Women Offenders and Their Families Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice This report, published in December 1998 as a part of the National Institute of Justice Program Focus series, offers information on the Women's Prison Association (WPA) and how it helps to support women offenders and their families. The WPA, an incorporated nonprofit agency in New York City, offers 'a broad array of institution- and community-based services to women offenders (i.e., women in prisons and jails, women on probation and parole and ex-offenders). HTML

Budnick, Kimberly, Shields-Fletcher, Ellen (1998). What About Girls? Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Adolescent female arrests are increasing. This is a fact sheet that summarizes the efforts taken by states to assist juvenile female offenders by developing new programs. HTML

1997

Poitier, Vanesta L., Niliwaambieni, Makini, Rowe, Cyprian Lamar (1997). A Rite of Passage Approach Designed to Preserve the Families of Substance-Abusing African American Women Child Welfare, LXXVI, (1), 175-196, Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America This article approaches the treatment of addicted African American women in ways drawn from traditional African culture.

Prescott, Laura (1997). Adolescent Girls with Co-Occurring Disorders in the Juvenile Justice System Delmar, NY: The National GAINS Center for People with Co-Occurring Disorders in the Justice System This report describes the characteristics of girls that enter into the juvenile justice system, prevalence rates of multiple disorders, and what constitutes safety for girls. Programs that are gender-specific and training for those involved in the efforts to treat girls are needed.

Stevens, Joyce West (1997). African American Female Adolescent Identity Development: A Three-Dimensional Perspective Child Welfare, LXXVI, (3), 145-174, Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America 'African American female adolescents have unique identity issues that structure developmental tasks. Qualitative data from a longitudinal research project are used to explicate a three-dimensional model of the identity developmental process in early-age African American female adolescents. The limitations of a gender analysis model of voice and connection are noted. It is suggested that the African American female adolescent experiences a relational crisis in both racial and gender identity development. Moreover, African American female adolescents develop skillful, unique, expressionistic and assertive styles of relating to negotiating perceived hostile environments. Practice implications for child welfare are outlined' [article abstract].

Kempf-Leonard, Kimberly, Peterson, Elicka, Sample, Lisa (1997). Gender and Juvenile Justice in Missouri St. Louis, Missouri: University of Missouri, Department of Criminology & Criminal Justice This report is part of the initiative in Missouri designed to obtain more information about female offending and processing; the report is intended to provide information previously unavailable on juvenile justice processing of females. Sections include: Research Design and Methods; Findings for Law Violations; Findings for Status Offense Cases; Findings for Abuse and Neglect Cases; Perceptions of Juvenile and Family Court Personnel; Reports from Youth Residential Facilities; Youth and Family Services; and Views of Adolescent Males.

Belknap, Joanne, Dunn, Melissa, Holsinger, Kristi (1997). Gender Specific Services Columbus, OH: Ohio Office of Criminal Justice Services This report contains a summary of research and data regarding female offenders in Ohio, an explanation on women’s psychology and gender differences, and an analysis of 11 focus groups.

Balknap, Joanne, Dunn, Melissa, Holsinger, Kristi (1997). Gender Specific Work Group: Moving Toward Juvenile Justice and Youth-Serving Systems that Address the Distinct Experience of the Adolescent Female Ohio: Gender Specific Services Work Group This is a report on girls in the Ohio juvenile justice system. It contains important information regarding their struggles growing up and includes advice on how to work with them efficiently. It is conducted through extensive research and data gathering.

Daly, Kathleen, Tonry, Michael (1997). Gender, Race, and Sentencing Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press The empirical literature on criminal courts reveals policy dilemmas in achieving 'just' sentencing practices. Blacks (and especially black men) may be more likely than white men or women to benefit from tightly limited discretion and limited individualization of sentencing whereas women (both black and white) may be more likely to benefit from broader discretion and greater individualization. Future policies will need to confront the competing demands of justice that race and gender pose in the official response to crime.'

Greene, Peters, & Associates (1997). Gender-Specific Programming for Girls: Needs Assessment Questionnaire Nashville, TN: Greene, Peters, & Associates This is a questionnaire that assesses the need for gender-specific programming for girls. Sections are devoted to juvenile delinquency, relational aggression in girls, and gender-specific programming for girls.

Wallace, Susan (1997). Gender-Specific Treatment Rationale Journal for Juvenile Justice and Detention Services, 12, (2), 62-67 Females respond differently to people and situations; therefore, they need to be in gender-specific treatment modalities. Issues unique to females include their need to have positive female role models, uncomfortableness with Alcoholics Anonymous, promiscuity, and adolescent pregnancy.

Rogers, Darren J. (1997). Southern Oaks Girls School: Annual Report Union Grove, WI: Southern Oaks Girls School This report offers a detailed look at the Southern Oaks Girls School, which is a safe and secure educational treatment program designed to change the behavior of delinquent girls. During the fiscal year of 1996-1997, the School served over 300 female offenders, offering them the unique programs necessary to female juvenile offenders.

Chesney-Lind, Meda (1997). The Female Offender: Girls, Women, and Crime Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. The author of this book believes that girls’ troubles create pathways to women’s crimes. She explains the factors that help create these pathways and also how gender and race help shape the choice that girls make. She believes that the juvenile justice system has two-tracks, one for white girls and one for girls of color.

Holsinger, Kristi, Belknap, Joanne (1997). The Trouble With Delinquent Girls Focal Point This article, a national bulletin on family support and children's mental health, describes the unfair ways girls are treated, both in the juvenile justice system and in their own families. HTML

Tucker, Jennifer, Wolfe, Leslie R. (1997). Victims No More: Girls Fight Back Against Male Violence Washington D.C.: Center for Women Policy Studies This document discusses the fact that girls who have had to deal with violence all of their lives are now turning that violence back onto their victimizers, who are almost always men or boys. Survey research conducted by the Center for Women Policy Studies in 1993 indicated that girls fight back the most during sexual assault and during those times where their lives are threatened.

1996

Larson, Noel R. (1996). Female Sex Offenders: Can We Treat Them? Treatment Today, 26-27 It is important to note patterns that underlie female sex offenders’ behaviors so that treatment that will prove effective may be developed. Five common characteristics that female sex offenders share is provided as a tool for reference.

Maher, Lisa, (1996). Gender, Power, and Alternative Living Arrangements in the Inner-City Crack Culture Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 33, (2), 181-205 Impoverished crack-abusing women are usually without a regular place to live, sleep, relax, bathe, eliminate, eat, and store possessions-but most are not homeless persons on the streets because they find alternative living arrangements. This article draws from a rich descriptive repository of field notes, field diaries, and transcribed tape-recorded interviews from two ethnographic studies in New York City, focused upon crack users and sellers. The most common alternative living arrangement was for women to live in the household of an older male with a dependable income for a period of time. These alternative living arrangements reflected the women's powerlessness and the high levels of sexual exploitation and degredation of women in the inner-city crack culture.

Albrecht, Linda (1996). Gender-Specific Programming in Juvenile Detention and Corrections Journal for Juvenile Justice and Detention Services, 11, (2), 55-63 This article focuses on how programs for female offenders have been ignored that could help them move toward a better life. Gender-specific programming for at-risk females can include educational and informational services.

Loper, Ann B., Cornell, Dewey G. (1996). Homicide by Juvenile Girls Journal of Child and Family Studies, 5, (3), 323-336 We investigated offense characteristics for a national sample of 38,749 homicide arrestees identified in the FBI Supplemental Homicide Reports for 1984 and 1993. Analyses indicated little change from 1984 to 1993 in the circumstances of homicides committed by adolescent girls; however, there were consistent offense differences between girls and boys, and between girls and women.

Stuart, Reginald (1996). Kemba's Nightmare: A Model Child Becomes Prisoner #26370-083 - Drug Sentencing Frenzy; Good Kids, Bad Choices Emerge - Black America's Newsmagazine, 28-49 Kemba Smith was sentenced to 24 years in prison for drug trafficking and possession with no chance of parole. Mandatory minimum sentencing legislations contribute to the increase of African-American women convicted of drug-related charges and sentenced to state prisons.

Girls, Inc. (1996). Prevention and Parity: Girls in Juvenile Justice New York, NY: Girls Inc. This represents research conducted by Girls Inc. on juvenile female offenders. It includes the nature of female juvenile delinquency, factors that place them at risk , factors that affect the system’s handling of females, and knowledge about effective programs for females. HTML

Gottfredson, Stephen D., Jarjoura, G. Roger (1996). Race, Gender, and Guidelines-Based Decision Making Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 33, (1), 49-69 The nature and extent of statistical and ethical problems associated with risk components of guideline systems are described, along with criticisms generally resulting from the fact that race and gender are correlated with common outcomes predicted by criminal justice functionaries.

Spatz Widom, Cathy, Maxfield, Michael G. (1996). The Cycle of Violence: Revisited 6 Years Later Arch. Pediatri. Adolesc. Med., 150, (390-395) This article assesses the long-term effects of child abuse and neglect on delinquency, adult criminality and violent criminal behavior. Taken from a metropolitan area in the Midwest, the study uses a design that matched cases of abuse and neglect with those of controls.

Reams, Patricia (1996). Unique Health Care Needs of Female Juvenile Offenders Lanham, MD: American Correctional Association The difference in health care between boys and girls requires distinct requirements for the health care staff that service the female juvenile population. This author suggest placing a greater number of health care personnel in female facilities in order to accommodate their health care needs.

1995

Bureau of Planning, Research and Statistics (1995). A Profile of Youthful Offender and Female Correctional Institutions in Florida Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department of Corrections, Bureau of Planning, Research and Statistics This document provides a description of Florida correctional institutions for young female offenders.

Boyer, Debra (1995). Adolescent Pregnancy: The Role of Sexual Abuse NRCCSA News, 4, (6) If public policy and prevention efforts are to be meaningful, child sexual abuse and exploitation must be understood in relation to the other "causes" of teen pregnancy. (Author quote)

Dembo, Richard, Schmeidler, James, Chin Sue, Camille, Borden, Polly, Manning, Darrell (1995). Gender Differences in Service Needs among Youth Entering a Juvenile Assessment Center: A Replication Study Journal of Correctional Health Care, 2, (2), 191-216 A serious troubled home life seems to have more of an influence on female delinquency than on male delinquency. This article highlights some other important factors that need to be addressed in order to understand male and female youth involvement in the juvenile justice system and to provide appropriate services to them.

Moses, Marilyn C. (1995). Girl Scouts Beyond Bars - A Synergistic Solution for Children of Incarcerated Parents Corrections Today, 57, (7), : National Juvenile Detention Association Tools and Resources Any woman who's been a Girl Scout remembers camping, singing, making friends, earning badges for her sash and attending "flying-up" ceremonies, in which certain girls would "fly up" or advance to higher ranks. She remembers the troop meetings, which usually were held at a community center or in a classroom of a local church or school. But for the girls participating in "Girl Scouts Beyond Bars," these memories will be different in many ways. Their Girl Scout meetings are held in a prison or jail - because this is where their mothers are. (Author quote)

Albrecht, Linda (1995). Managing Delinquency: Programs That Work Laurel, MD: American Correctional Association This book includes information regarding policy formation, managerial topics for dealing with every facet of the juvenile justice system, at-risk youth programs, and other administrative issues. It focuses on training matters for those who wish to conduct research on the juvenile justice system.

Women's Treatment Center (1995). The C.I.T.Y. Program Chicago, IL Brochure describing the C.I.T.Y. program, a 28-day residential substance abuse treatment program for women and girls that includes their children. Women and girls with children under age five live in residence while receiving individualized treatment to overcome substance abuse.

1994

Mayer, Judith A. (1994). Female Population Task Force: 1994 Annual Report Baltimore, MD: Department of Juvenile Services, State of Maryland This annual report published by the Female Population Task Force describes the Female Population Mandate and Task Force Structure, details their commitment to young women, shows statistics for intake trends for FY 1993 and FY 1994, presents a listing of the Task Force's accomplishments and works in progress and offers a look at their goals for the future. The Task Force was originally created to identify the needs of young women in the juvenile justice system and to implement changes in order to better serve these young women.

Oregon Girls and Young Women's Project (1994). Ideas for Action: Helping Girls and Young Women in Your Community Salem, OR: Oregon Community Children and Youth Services Commission The booklet focuses on seven advocacy strategies: organizing the community for action, recruiting and using volunteers, influencing public policy, getting the message out, building self-esteem, tapping potential supporters, and raising funds for the programs. Suggestions for specific activities are listed under each advocacy strategy.

Adolescent Female Subcommittee (1994). Needs Assessment and Recommendations For Adolescent Females in Minnesota St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Department of Economic Security A report by the Adolescent Female Subcommittee of the Advisory Task Force on the Female Offender in Corrections. In support of adolescent female issues, the subcommittee conducted a needs assessment and established recommendations to ensure that the issues and problems of females in the criminal and juvenile justice system are met.

Florida HRS Initiative Advocating for At-Risk, Justice System Girls (1994). OJJDP News Notes Washington, DC: OJJDP Florida’s Girls Initiative brings together professionals from education, health, social services, and private youth service providers to discuss the needs of at-risk young females.

1993

Girls Inc. (1993). An Investment in Girls: Annual Report 1993 New York, NY: Girls Inc. This annual report of Girls Inc. describes the organization mission, programs, services, funding, target population and membership. HTML

Mullen, Joseph K. (1993). Crisis Intervention with Pregnant Female Adolescents in Residential Care Journal for Juvenile Justice and Detention Services, 8, (1) This article discusses the subject of crisis intervention with pregnant female adolescents in residential care.

Tucker, Jennifer (1993). Fact Sheet On Girls And Violence , Washington, D.C. This Fact Sheet is an initial effort to highlight the problem of girls and violence and begin to move the needs of girls 'from margin to center' in the National debate about youth violence.

Mayer, Judith A., (1993). Female Population Task Force: First Annual Report Baltimore, MD: Department of Juvenile Services, State of Maryland This work chronicles the efforts of The Female Population Task Force. The program addresses the special concerns and needs of girls in the juvenile justice system. Chapters include: The Female Population Task Force: Its Purpose and Mandate; Young Women in Trouble; Initial Efforts to Improve Services: What We Have Done; and Plans for the Future.

Shelden, Randall G., Chesney-Lind, Meda (1993). Gender and Race Differences in Delinquent Careers Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 44, (3) This study follows a cohort from their first referral to juvenile court in 1980 through 1987. Attention was taken to race and gender of the offender once the study was finished because those factors played a major role in the rate of delinquency.

Moses, Marilyn C. (1993). Girl Scouts Behind Bars - New Program at Women's Prison Benefits Mothers and Children Corrections Today, (1), 132-135 An article describing a promising new program at the Maryland Correctional Institution for Women in Jessup. The program is run by the Girl Scouts of Central Maryland with assistance from the National Institute of Justice and represents the first Girl Scout troop for incarcerated women and their daughters.

Maniglia, Rebecca (1993). P.A.C.E. Center for Girls Profile , 5, (5) This article is about the P.A.C.E. Center for girls. P.A.C.E. stands for practical and cultural education center. This Florida program has successfully given troubled females a second chance for the last eight years.

1992

Wood, Gina (1992). 50 Ways to Help Girls and Young Women in Your Community Portland, OR: Oregon Girls and Young Women's Project This pamphlet, assembled by the Oregon Commission on Children and Families, lists responses families and individuals can do to help girls in at-risk situations. A short discussion of self-esteem and a few statistics about at-risk girls in Oregon are features.

Dornfeld, Maude, Kruttschnitt, Candace (1992). Do the Stereotypes Fit? Mapping Gender-Specific Outcomes and Risk Factors Criminology, 30, (3), 397-419 Study on ways in which boys and girls differ in their behavioral and emotional responses to stressful family events.

Austin, James, Bloom, Barbara, Donahue, Trish (1992). Female Offenders in the Community: An Analysis of Innovative Strategies and Programs Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Corrections This report is an analysis of programs and strategies that can provide treatment for female offenders in community settings. A few of the topics discussed are identifying what female offenders need and then offering suggestions regarding the range of sanctions for them.

Boritch, Helen (1992). Gender and Criminal Court Outcomes: An Historical Analysis Criminology, 30, (3), 293-325 Research on gender differences in criminal sanctions generally finds a pattern of more lenient outcomes for female offenders, while noting that the effect of gender varies in relation to a number of contextual influences. As yet, however, little attention has been paid to how the relationship of gender to court outcomes varies across different historical periods. This paper examines this issue, using data on male and female offenders committed to Middlesex County Jail, Ontario, during the Urban Reform Era (1871-1920). The findings reveal an overall pattern of more severe dispositions for female offenders in the past.

Marshall, Chris E., Webb, Vincent J. (1992). The Impact of Gender and Race Upon Armed Victim Resistance: Some Findings From the National Crime Survey Criminal Justice Policy Review, 6, (3), 241-260 A sample of NCS personal victimization incidents was analyzed in order to identify the correlates of victims' armed resistance to attack. In order to assess whether the correlates of victims' use of a gun were different from those of victims' self-protective use of another weapon, two dependent variables were employed: (1) use of a gun, and (2) use of weapon other than a gun. The results of the logistic regression suggest that gender and presence of an offender's weapon were related to self-defensive weapon use. Additional significant predictors were distance from home and victim income for gun use only; number of recent moves, whether the attack took place in the dark or during daylight, and time of day that incident took place for other weapon use only.

Tracy, Sharon K., Shelden, Randall G. (1992). The Violent Female Juvenile Offender: An Ignored Minority Within the Juvenile Justice System Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 43, (3) This report examines violent female adolescent offenders in 1985 and 1988, the programs available to them then, and how it compares it to what is currently being implemented by the juvenile justice system.

1991

Simpson, Sally S. (1991). Caste, Class, and Violent Crime: Explaining Difference in Female Offending Criminology, 29, (1), 115-135 In this paper, race and class combine to produce uniquely situated populations of females (e.g., "underclass" black females) who, when compared with their gender and racial counterparts, also appear to have unique patterns of criminality. Using the exta

Johnson, David R., Scheuble, Laurie K. (1991). Gender Bias in the Disposition of Juvenile Court Referrals: The Effects of Time and Location Criminology, 29, (4), 677-699 Theory based on sex role traditionalism predicts a more punishing decision for female than for male offenders, while theory based on chivalry (paternalism) predicts greater leniency by the courts for female offenders. This paper tests these two models using a large sample (36,680) of juvenile court referrals in metropolitan, urban, and rural locations spanning a nine-year period. Evidence of gender bias in dispositions was found. The patterns of bias across time, location, offense committed, and previous referral to the court system supports the persistence of chivalry and a decline in sex role traditionalism in court decisions. Greater punishment for girls than boys was found only for repeat offenders committing more serious offenses. Even in those cases, girls were more likely to be taken out of the home environment by the courts through a custody transfer while boys were more likely to be sent to a lock-up facility.

Odem, Mary E.;Schlossman, Steven (1991). Guardians of Virtue: The Juvenile Court and Female Delinquency in Early 20th-Century Los Angeles Crime and Delinquency, 37, (2), 186-203 Data derived from original case files of 220 delinquent girls on whom petitions were filed in 1920 were analyzed to determine the social backgrounds of the girls, the behaviors that brought them into court, and the process and results of adjudication. The data between 1920 and 1950 indicate that the overwhelming majority of girls charged with delinquency continued to be status and moral offenders, predominantly white, working-class, and from single-parent families.

Center for the Study of Youth Policy (1991). Programming For Young Women in the Juvenile Justice System Ann Arbor, MI: Center for the Study of Youth Policy This is a booklet for policymakers to use as a reference for treating female offenders. It describes their needs and what types of programs are essential for them to develop emotionally and occupationally.

Chambers, Elizabeth (1991). The Association of Advocates for Female Youth at Risk Cullowhee, NC: Mountain Youth Resources This is a brief brochure of an association of advocates for female youth at risk. In March 1980 an assembly of concerned human service professionals met to discuss the unique problems and needs of young women in trouble.

Nicholson, Heather Johnston, Postrado, Leticia T., Weiss, Faedra Lazar (1991). Truth, Trust and Technology: New Research on Preventing Adolescent Pregnancy New York, NY: Girls Inc. This document was prepared as a result of Girls Inc.'s Preventing Adolescent Pregnancy study in 1985. The 3-year study, involving 750 girls between 12 and 17, found that teen pregnancy could be completely avoided with involvement in program activities such as the Growing Together Program; Will Power/Won't Power; Taking Care of Business; and Health Bridge. Provided are graphs, length discussion of the study's results and recommendations for youth organizations.

Kehoe, Charles J. (1991). Young Women in Virginia's Juvenile Justice System: Where Do They Belong? Richmond, Virginia: VA Department of Youth and Family Services This document (57 pages and 5 appendices) examines how the Virginia juvenile justice system and the Department of Youth and Family Services addresses the needs of the juvenile female offender. Provided in the report is a profile of the youthful female offender; the types and availability of programs throughout the state; analysis of the Bon Air Learning Center's mission, programs and services, appropriateness for the population; public information strategies to assist these young women; and staff training needs to work with them.

1990

Schwartz, Ira M.;Steketee, Martha W.;Schneider, Victoria W. (1990). Federal Juvenile Justice Policy and the Incarceration of Girls Crime and Delinquency, 36, (4), 503-520 This study examines how juvenile justice policy affects girls detained in U.S. public training schools. It also describes state by state differences by gender and provides suggestions for policy development. HTML

Hodanish, Ty (1990). Girls in New Jersey's Juvenile Justice System Trenton, NJ: New Jersey Juvenile Delinquency Commission Statistical profile.

Rosenbaum, Jill Leslie, Lasley, James R. (1990). School, Community Context, and Delinquency: Rethinking the Gender Gap Justice Quarterly, 7, (3), 493-514 This study examines the role of gender and of community context in the relationship between school factors and delinquent behavior, otherwise termed here "the school-delinquency gender gap." Control theory (Hirschi 1969) and power-control theory (Hagan,

1989

Bergsmann, Ilene R. (1989). Adolescent Female Offenders: Program Parity is Essential To Meeting Their Needs Corrections Today This article focuses on social skills and educational programs for female offenders. The primary reason that equitable programming is not available for females, the author claims, is that there are budgetary restraints and the smaller amount of female offenders in the system. The author suggests that equitable services are necessary among state departments.

American Correctional Association (1989). American Correctional Association Survey of Female Inmates Lanaham, MD: American Correctional Association This document, published in 1989 by the American Correctional Association, offers the results from a survey of female inmates. Questions on the survey covered the following topics: race and ethnic origin; age; marital status; handicapping conditions; living arrangements; children; home and family life; suicidal tendencies; physical and sexual abuse; use of alcohol and drugs; participation in drug treatment programs; satisfaction with drug treatment programs; education; employment; arrest and sentence information; and attitudes about prison programs.

Bergsmann, Ilene R. (1989). The Forgotten Few: Juvenile Female Offenders Federal Probation This article takes up the problems of female juvenile delinquents and provides a description of the female offender, as well as stereotyping by correctional administrators, and proposed policy changes.

1988

Hill, Gary D., Atkinson, Maxine P. (1988). Gender, Familial Control, and Delinquency Criminology, 26, (1), 127-150 This research addresses a key process in power-control theory, namely, the gender stratification of social control. Using a multidimensional measure of familial control, the authors find evidence that the types of familial control employed are stratified by gender: male children are more typically aligned with paternal support and appearance rules, and female children are more often the subjects of maternal support and curfew rules. All four dimensions have significant negative effects on delinquency. Brief attention is given as well to the effects of these variables on contact with formal social control agencies.

Chesney-Lind, Meda (1988). Girls and Status Offenses: Is Juvenile Justice Still Sexist? Criminal Justice Abstracts, 144-165 This author points at judicial sexism in our system as the reason for higher arrest rates among girls who commit status offenses compared to boys who commit the same offenses.

Chesney-Lind, Meda, Shelden, Randall G. (1988). Issues in the Institutionalization of Girls Chicago, IL This paper evaluates the situation of girls in the ten years after the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Act of 1974 was passed. It also reviews the result of moving the girls from closed institutions to open ones.

1987

Hodanish, Ty (1987). Gender and delinquency Trenton, NJ: New Jersey Juvenile Delinquency Commission Statistical profile.

Spohn, Cassia, Gruhl, John, Welch, Susan (1987). The Impact of the Ethnicity and Gender of Defendants on the Decision to Reject or Dismiss Felony Charges Criminology, 25, 1, 175-191, : American Correctional Association This study examines the issue of pretrial discrimination by focusing on the prosecutor's decision to reject or dismiss charges against black, Anglo, and Hispanic male and female defendants in Los Angeles. The data reveal a pattern of discrimination in favor of female defendants and against black and Hispanic defendants. Hispanic males are most likely to be prosecuted fully, followed by black males, Anglo males, and females of all ethnic groups.

1985

Hagan, John (1985). Toward a Structural Theory of Crime, Race, and Gender: The Canadian Case Crime and Delinquency, 31, (1), 129-146 Analysis of Ontario prison statistics and Winnipeg arrest statistics indicates that Natives have a crime rate 4.5 times the rate of non-Natives; alcohol offenses, at a rate 16 times higher for Natives than for non-Natives, primarily make the difference between Native and non-Native crime rates. Further, analysis reveals that gender differences are substantially greater than racial differences, with the male crime rate being nearly 20 times the female crime rate. HTML

1984

Ogburn, Harold (1984). Options: A Program Designed for Young Women (Runaways/ Promiscuous Behavior) Portland, OR: Multnomah County Juvenile Court This brochure describes Multnomah County Juvenile Court's Options Program counseling & other services to girls involved in runaway or sexual behavior. Girls can be referred to the service by themselves or by an organization outside of Juvenile Court.

1983

Farkas, Susan C. (1983). Juvenile Justice: Myths and Realities Washington, DC: Institute for Educational Leadership This book provides information on the inadequate treatment violent juvenile offenders receive as well as the difficulties that caseworkers may face in reforming them. It focuses on treatments that are necessary for black and white youths and shares success stories about treating young violent offenders.

Larson, James H. (1983). Rural Female Delinquents' Adaptation to Institutional Life Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 34, (1), 83-92 This study attempts to explain rural female adaptation in coeducational industrial schools. The results show a link between sibling experiences in institutions, the lack of positive expectations when placed in group homes, negative expectations after being released, and adaptation to the institution itself.

1982

Newman, Frances; Caplan, Paula J. (1982). Juvenile Female Prostitution As Gender Consistent Response to Early Deprivation International Journal of Women's Studies, 5 (2), 128-137 This study was designed as a preliminary clinical investigation of the function of prostitution as a symptom in the lives of female juveniles who had experienced early emotional deprivation. Ten juvenile female prostitutes seen at the family Court Clinic were interviewed in depth, written histories were taken, and projective tests were administered. These juvenile female prostitutes appeared to be using prostitution itself, as well as the activities accompanying it, to avoid facing feelings of depression and emptiness that resulted from early emotional deprivation and later, continuing deprivation and inadequacy of the social supports required for healthy ego development. In contrast to deprived male delinquents, who bolster self-esteem by stealing, these girls relied on exaggerations of the traditional female sex-object role to acquire material goods which enhanced their self-esteem.

Huntingdon, Jane F. (1982). Powerless and Vulnerable: The Social Experiences of Imprisoned Girls Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 33, (5), 33-44 This investigation of female youth in confinement is ultimately an analysis of their position in terms of treatment by juvenile justice authority and in terms of their psychological, social and economic status in American society. This work describes female delinquents in terms of developmental concepts; and it is an analysis of the impact of legal, social and institutional authority on girls in trouble. The conclusions of the few studies undertaken indicate that female adolescents in confinement suffer from compound deprivations and discrimination.

1980

Zingraff, Matthew T., Zingraff, Rhonda M. (1980). Adaptation Patterns of Incarcerated Female Delinquents Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 31, (2), 35-48 This article, published in the May 1980 issue of The Juvenile and Family Court Journal, talks about adaptation patterns of incarcerated female delinquents.

Giallombardo, Rose (1980). Female Delinquency Critical Issues in Juvenile Delinquency, 63-82, Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books The author provides data on female crime patterns and compares it to male crime. She comes to the conclusion that delinquency laws discriminate against females and that the juvenile justice system needs to examine the content of the laws to prevent this discrimination.

Caplan, Paula J., Awad, George A., Wilks Corinne, White, Georgina (1980). Sex Differences in a Delinquency Clinic Population London, England: Stevens and Sons Limited This is a description of a Canadian study of juvenile delinquents. It includes information about each delinquents developmental history, social behavior, school history, family history as well as other factors. The results show a significant difference between the offenses that boys and girls commit. Graphs included.

1979

Mann, Coramae Richey (1979). The Differential Treatment Between Runaway Boys and Girls in Juvenile Court Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 30, (2), 37-48 This article talks about the differential treatment between runaway boys and girls in juvenile court. The article describes a study that reported that 'girls who left home without permission more often received the most severe court sanction than boys who had committed the same offense. Further, this female status offender was more frequently held in custody at the time of her dispositional hearing than her male counterpart. She also was found to be held in detention more frequently than the female delinquent offender who had perpetrated criminal offenses.

1978

May, J. Gary (1978). Understanding Sexual Child Abuse Chicago, IL: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse The complexities of sexual child abuse are examined, with emphasis on the devasting effects it has on the physical and mental health of victims. Children who are sexually victimized in any way by adults are abused, but consideration must be given to the actual harm done. Greater harm may result from inappropriate responses on the part of adults that make children feel afraid, guilty, or dirty. The sexual abuse of children involves actions ranging from verbal stimuli, such as an obscene telephone call, to rape. Abuse can be committed by offenders of various ages and of both sexes. Both boys and girls can be sexually abused, and the type of abuse makes a considerable difference in the impact it has. Abuse is classified according to three major groups: nontouching, touching, and violent. A study of sexual offenders indicates that the median age is 31.32 years, 21 percent are under 20 years of age, only 10 percent are over the age of 50 years, the racial distribution is almost identical to that of the victim, only 15 percent have a prior record of criminal conviction, and 65 percent were known to children prior to offenses. Different types of incest and their impact on children are assessed, and characteristics of sexually abused children are described.

1977

Johnson, Norma Holloway (1977). Special Problems of the Female Offender Juvenile Justice, 28, (3), 3-10 This article discusses the special problems of the female offender. The article was delivered as an address to the graduate college at Snowmass, Colorado, in June 1976.

1973

Chesney-Lind, Meda (1973). Judicial Enforcement of the Female Sex Role: The Family Court and the Female Delinquent Criminology, 8, (2), 51-69 This article discusses judicial enforcement of the female sex role in juvenile delinquency. The article points out that female juvenile delinquents are not researched as often as their male counterparts. Further, females are often thought to act out 'sexually;' that is, they violate female sex role expectations, which are quite different from the expectations set upon males.

1972

Greene, Nancy B., Esselstyn, T.C. (1972). The Beyond Control Girl Juvenile Justice, 23, (3), 13-19 This article, published in the November 1972 issue of Juvenile Justice, offers a look at 'the beyond control girl.' This article talks about the volume of teenage girls who are arrested for law violations and/or those who are arrested for beyond control conduct. Other sections discuss: problems at school; unwed pregnancy; sex delinquency; runaways; and incorrigible girls. HTML

National Mental Health Association. Mental Health and Adolescent Girls in the Justice System Alexandria, VA: National Mental Health Association This report, published by the National Mental Health Association (NMHA), offers information on mental health and adolescent girls in the justice system. It discusses the treatment needs of girls in the juvenile justice system and improving care for girls in the juvenile justice system that involve programs that focus on building relationships and improving self-esteem. HTML

Mayer, Judith A.. Taking Girls into Account: Changing a Juvenile Services Agency from Within Baltimore, MD: Department of Juvenile Services, State of Maryland This report offers juvenile service agencies tips on developing demographic data, increasing the level of awareness of gender-specific issues, reviewing your polices and checking for any gender bias, and networking with community groups that can help you as well.